初中英语作文写作手法
段落展开是用细节对主题作说明、解释和论述。展开段落是段落写作的关键，常用的方法有：事实与数据法、举例法、比较与对比法、分类法、因果法、叙述法、描述法以及过程分析法。限于篇幅，本文只讨论事实与数据法、举例法、比较与对比法、分类法四种段落展开手法。
1. 事实与数据法
事实是客观存在且可被证实的事情，例如：“Water cannot fire.”以及“Oil and water do not mix.”是事实，两者都可以通过实验证明其真实性。但“Doing exercises can improve our health.”则见仁见智，它是一种看法。数据是以数字形式呈现的事实，用于给某一主题提供有意义的信息。
[段落示例8]
Use of the Internet has grown very quickly. In 1983, there were 562 computers connected to the Internet. By the turn of the century, there were 72.3 million computers in 247 countries online. Experts say that the Internet is now growing at a rate of approximately 40 percent a year. As time goes on, the Internet is becoming more and more popular.
段落示例8中的主题句为：Use of the Internet has grown very quickly. 本段落使用了数据法来论述主题，用很多数据说明Internet的使用快速增长。
在使用事实和数据时，切莫将事实与看法混为一谈。在写作中，要用事实支持自己的观点。其次，不使用不相关的数据。如果为了增加观点的可信度而使用不相关的数据，即使这些数据是真实的，也会引起误解。
2. 举例法
举例法也是展开段落的常用方法。举例法有两种形式，一是先陈述观点，后举出一个或多个例子阐明观点;二是先举一个例子，后转入例子所要阐明的观点。
[段落示例9]
The countryside is an amazing place to live in. First of all, there is a lot of fresh air in suburb areas. For example, not only are there few factories and cars to pollute the air, but also there are lots of trees to make breathing easier. Secondly, it is not crowded on the outskirts of a town. For instance, houses and buildings are spread out on vast areas of land. Finally, people are friendly outside of the cities. To illustrate, neighbours help one another with community cleaning. So, living away from the city is wonderful for various reasons.
段落示例9是典型的举例法，先摆出观点，再通过举例来阐明观点。用举例法展开段落时，例子要恰当，要能够支持自己的观点，并要准确阐明例子所支持的观点。
3. 比较与对比法
比较与对比法也是段落展开常用的方法。比较方法和对比方法基本一致，不同的是比较方法强调两事物如何相同，对比方法强调两事物如何不同。
[段落示例10]
Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. But life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more low-key than it is in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they must go to one of the public parks. On the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs, and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but people living in suburban areas must go into the city for entertainment.
段落示例10主要采用对比法，对比都市生活与城郊生活。在具体写作中，比较法和对比法可以同时使用。
在用比较或对比的方法展开段落时，首先要确定比较或对比的基点，一旦基点确定，就可以用逐项(item-to-item)比较或逐点(point-to-point)比较的方法展开段落。逐项比较针对被比较或对比的两个特定事物，先叙述甲事物，再叙述乙事物。逐点比较重点放在两事物的对应特征上，先叙述每个事物的某一特征，再叙述每个事物的另一特征。
4. 分类法
分类法是把一事物分成几个类别，表明这些部分与整体的关系。在写作时以总类开头，然后列举各个类别并对其作一些描述。
[段落示例11]
There are three classes of personnel at our college. The first class is the staff who are in charge of daily administration. These people work at the section in charge of scientific research and equipment, continuing education, teaching affairs and so on. The faculty classified as the second class include teachers and researchers who teach students or do research in different subjects. The last class is made up of employees who are hired to work in different departments as a supplement to our college personnel. They need to sign a labour contract every three years.
在段落示例11中，主题句为：There are three classes of personnel at our college. 分类词为classes;列举词为：first、second、last;所分的类为：staff、faculty和employees。
写分类段落必须遵循以下分类原则：
(1)对事物的分类遵循同一分类原则;
(2)所分的类别必须互不隶属和关联;
(3)分类必须完整;
(4)根据对所分类别的熟悉程度排列顺序;
(5)使用分类词和列举词。
用分类法展开段落时先使用分类词介绍概类，再使用列举词(如first、second、third)表明概类中的各分类。常用的分类词有kind、type、group、thought、way、class、part、element、factor、aspect、division、characteristic、subdivision、reason、category等。
五、词句多样化的表达形式
一篇经典优质的文章除了内容丰富和组织严密外，词汇和句型的运用起着重要作用。字词准确使用、句型结构灵活多变及搭配合理均可以达到表达形式多样化的效果，使文章生动有趣、充满活力(胡湘华，2010)。
1. 使用近义词或同义词
在段落写作中，多次重复使用一个词会使文章变得单调乏味，巧妙地运用近义词或同义词，可使句子的表达形式发生变化，从而增强文章的可读性。
例如，在段落示例9中，使用同义词或近义词的方法达到了表达方式多样化的效果，如用 suburb、countryside、outskirts、outside of the cities等不同的词表达相近的含义。本段主题句“The countryside is an amazing place to live in.”和结论句“So, living away from the city is wonderful for various reasons.”使用amazing和wonderful两个意义相近的词表达了同样的意思。再者，可将主题句中的amazing用charming置换，结论句中的various用many替代，用词多变，但句子表达的意思没有改变。
为了使表达方式多样化，名词、动词、副词和形容词都可以用它们的近义词或同义词来相互替代，有时名词可用代词替代。在段落示例10中，people living in the city、city dwellers、they、a person living in the city均表示城市居民，这些词或短语用在不同的句子中。
英语中同义词众多，在表达时用意义相近的短语代替单词也能体现作者的词汇运用能力。例如：
I have made up my mind to study English. / I have decided to study English.
A piece of burning paper resulted in the big fire. / A piece of burning paper caused the big fire.
2. 使用分词或分词短语
分词有过去分词和现在分词，分词或分词短语在句子中常作后置定语和状语。现在分词通常表示正在进行的动作，过去分词通常表示被动或完成的动作，它们的使用丰富了句子表达形式和内容。例如：
The thick crowd is sluggish. It is flowing up and down this street. He is swallowed up in the crowd.
以上句子为简短单句的罗列，通过合并句子和改写成含有现在分词短语作定语的长句能更有效地表达思想。句子可以作如下改写：
He is swallowed up in the thick crowd flowing sluggishly up and down this street.
又如：The town was north of the Red River, and a tornado struck it, and it was practically demolished.
这组句子由三个句子组成并列句，表达方式单调乏味，累赘而不简练。如果将相关句子改成包含过去分词短语作定语形式的句子，表达形式会更为紧凑简练，看起来更接近英语文风。句子可以作如下改写：
The town, located north of the Red River, was struck by a tornado and practically demolished.
再如：With the fire burning all night, she had a sound sleep.(现在分词作状语)
She gazed, her hands clasped to her breast. (过去分词作状语。)
分词作状语可修饰谓语动词或整个句子，表示动作发生的时间、原因、条件、结果、让步或伴随的情况。通常句子主语与分词的主语一致，否则需要在分词前添加主语，构成独立主格结构。
3. 使用名词表达动词意义
许多动词都有对应的名词，如lose的名词是loss，construct的名词为construction。一般来说，在英文写作中使用动词对应的名词表达动词的意义也能体现写作者的写作功底。可以在名词之前或之后加入定语修饰成分，从而使表达的信息更饱满、更丰富。这种表达方式言简意赅、形象生动。请看下面的例句：
His failure in the exam again made his mother very worried.(failure是名词，动词为fail。)
No one can enter the office without permission.(permission是名词，permission与permit表达相同意思。)
4. 长句与短句交替使用
一般说来，短句结构简单，用词少，信息容量小，简明扼要，生动活泼;长句结构复杂，用词多，信息容量大，表达严密、细致、精确。从修辞效果看，短句节奏快而且简洁灵活，生动形象;长句节奏慢，且细致严密。在英语表达中，如果只用短句或只用长句，语气和节奏缺乏变化，就容易使人产生单调、乏味之感。只有长短句交错使用，相映相衬，才能加强语言的艺术感染力，增强文章的表达效果(张旭瑾，2009)。
[段落示例12]
①We can imagine the beautiful surroundings. ②There are many trees along the streets. ③There is a clean river in the city. ④There are many fishes in the river. ⑤There are willow trees on one side. ⑥There are some stretches of grassland on the other side. ⑦ There are many flowers there.
段中七个句子均为短句，句型结构单一，长短相同，十分单调。下面是修改后的段落：
① Just imagine the beautiful surroundings we can create if we make our cities greener. ② Green trees line the streets. ③ A clean river winds through the city，in which a lot of fishes abound. ④On one side stand rows of willow trees. ⑤ On the other side lies a stretch of grassland sprinkled with many yellow and red flowers.
改写后的这段文字有长句①、③、⑤，也有短句②和④，一长一短，表现出抑扬顿挫的节奏感。不仅句子长短交叉，而且句型结构变化也很大，使文章流畅自然，生动活泼。
5. 使用复合句
在段落中，使用大量堆砌的单句在一定程度上降低了表达效果，复合句可以将结构松散的单句关联起来，呈现简洁、明了的表达效果。英语写作常用的复合句包括定语从句、状语从句、名词性从句(练稳山，2010)。例如：
定语从句：Mary is a girl in Class 1, who speaks English very fluently.
状语从句：The boy was saved because the doctor arrived there before it was too late.
名词性从句：His teacher didn't know why Xiao Ming was always late for school.
名词性从句包括主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句和同位语从句等。
6. 巧用连接词，丰富句型和表达方式
如果在写作中过多使用so、and、then、but、or、however、yet等连接词，非但达不到丰富表达方式的目的，反而使句子结构松散。巧用连接词不仅能够丰富句型，而且还能够把思想表达得更清楚，使语义更连贯，尤其是一些表示从属关系的连接词，如who、which、that、because、since、although、after、as、before、when、whenever、if、unless、as if等。例如：
The Mississippi River is one of the longest rivers in the world，and in spring it often overflows its banks，and the lives of many people are endangered.
上句用了and把三个分句并列起来，单调乏味。如果使用关系代词which，就可以使句式更多样，语义更连贯，语言更流畅。例如：The Mississippi River，which is one of the longest rivers in the world，often overflows its banks in spring, endangering the lives of many people.
在英文写作中，要掌握一些常用的连接词的使用，如表示罗列的first、then、finally、moreover等;表示时间顺序的recently、at first、in the beginning等;表示转折关系的but、however、though、otherwise等;表示并列关系的and、also、too、as well as等;表示因果关系的because、because of、as等;表示让步关系的although、however、no matter how等;表示目的的so that、so as to等;表示强调的in fact、certainly、no doubt、obviously等;表示归纳概括的in a word、in short、in brief、as far as I know、in conclusion等。
此外还要掌握一些常用的句型，如in order to、in order that、would rather do ... than do、prefer doing ... to doing ...、not ... until、It is no use / good doing ...、It is ... that ...、so ... that ... 等。
六、结束语
以段落为中心的英文写作技巧和方法可以延伸到篇章写作。篇章是段落的集合，篇章在结构上与段落是一致的。篇章的结构可以说是段落结构的扩展。段落的写作方法和手段同样适用于篇章的写作。
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