罗宾斯管理学双语教学讲稿
Nine Planning Tools and Techniques
http://www.oh100.com RODUCTION. This chapter introduces a number of the basic planning tools and techniques that managers can use. TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSING THE ENVIRONMENT. Several techniques have been developed to assist managers in assessing the
organization’s environment.
A. Environmental scanning.
Environmental scanning is the screening of large amounts of
information to anticipate and interpret changes in the environment. It’s used by both large and small organizations, and research has shown that companies with advanced environmental scanning systems increased their profits and revenue growth.
1. Competitor intelligence fastest growing environmental scanning activity that seeks to identify who competitors are, what they are
doing, and how their actions will affect the organization.
2. Another type of environmental scanning is global scanning in
which managers assethe changes and trends in the global
environment through the gathering of vital global information.
B. Forecasting.
Environmental scanning provides the foundation for developing
forecasts, which are predictions of outcomes.
1. There are two categories of forecasting techniques.
a. Quantitative forecasting applies a set of mathematical
rules to a series of past data to predict outcomes.
b. Qualitative forecasting uses the judgment and opinions
of knowledgeable individuals to predict outcomes.
c. Exhibit 9.1 describes some popular forecasting
techniques.
2. It’s important to look at forecasting effectiveness.
a. Forecasting techniques are most accurate when the
environment is not rapidly changing.
b. Some suggestions for improving forecasting
effectiveneare as follows:
1) Use simple forecasting techniques.
2) Compare every forecast with “no change.”
3) Don’t rely on a single forecasting method.
4) Don’t assume that you can accurately identify
turning points in a trend.
5) Shorten the length of the forecasts.
6) Forecasting is a managerial skill and can be
practiced and improved.
1
C.Benchmarking. Benchmarking is the search for the best practices among competitors or
noncompetitors that lead to their superior performance.
1. The benchmarking procetypically follows four steps. (See
Exhibit 9.2)
a. A benchmarking planning team is formed. The team’s
initial task is to identify what is to be benchmarked,
identify comparative organizations, and determine data
collection methods.
b. The team collects internal and external data.
c. The data is analyzed to identify performance gaps and to
determine the cause of the difference.
d. An action plan is prepared and implemented.
3.TECHNIQUES FOR ALLOCATING RESOURCES. Resources are the assets of the organization and include financial, physical,
human, intangible, and structural.
A. Budgeting.
A budget is a numerical plan for allocating resources to specific
activities. Budgets are popular because they’re applicable to a wide
variety of organizations and units within an organization.
B. Scheduling
Scheduling involves a list of necessary activities, their order of
completion, who is to do each, and time needed to complete them. Some
useful scheduling tools include the following.
1. The Gantt chart, named after Henry Gantt, is a scheduling chart
that visually shows actual and planned output over a period of
time. (See Exhibit 9-5)
2. A load chart is a modified Gantt chart that schedules capacity
by work areas. (See Exhibit 9-6.)
3. PERT (program evaluation and review technique) Network
Analysis is a technique for scheduling complicated projects
comprising many activities, some of which are interdependent.
a. A PERT network is a flowchart like diagram that
depicts the sequence of activities needed to complete a
project and the time or costs associated with each
activity.
b. The steps in developing a PERT network are outlined in
Exhibit 9.7 and involve the following terms:
1) Events are end points that represent the
completion of major activities in a PERT
network.
2) Activities, which are the time or resources
required to progrefrom one event to another
in a PERT network.
3) Slack time is the amount of time an individual
activity can be delayed without delaying the
whole project.
2
C.D.Critical path is the longest or most time-consuming sequence of events or activities in a PERT network. c. An example of a PERT network is shown in Exhibit 9.9 based on the data in Exhibit 9.9.Breakeven Analysis Breakeven analysis is a technique for identifying the point at which total revenue is just sufficient to cover total costs. A visual representation of breakeven is shown in Exhibit 9.10.Linear Programming Linear programming is a mathematical technique that can be used to solve resource allocation problems. (See Exhibits 9.11) 4)
http://www.oh100.com NTEMPORARY PLANNING TECHNIQUES. Two planning techniques that are appropriate for planning in an environment that’s both dynamic and complex are project management and scenario planning. A. Project Management.A project is a one-time-only set of activities that has a definite beginning and ending point in time. Project management is the task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within budget, and according to specifications. 1. Project Management Process.In a typical project, work is done by a project team whose members are assigned from their respective work areas to the project and who report to a project manager. 2. The role of the project manager. a. The only real influence project managers have is their communication skills and their power of persuasion. b. Team members seldom work on just one project; they’re usually assigned to two or three at any given time. B. Scenario planningA scenario is a consistent view of what the future is likely to be.1. Developing scenarios also can be described as contingency planning. 2. The intent of scenario planning is not to try to predict the future but to reduce uncertainty by playing out potential situations under different specified conditions. 3. Scenario planning is difficult to use when forecasting random events 4. Exhibit 9.14 lists some suggestions for preparing for unexpected events. It’s a waste of time and other resources to develop a set of sophisticated scenarios for situations that may never occur. Do you agree or disagree? Support your position. Although the situations that scenarios depict may never occur, the proceof developing the scenario can prove beneficial and worthwhile. So it’s not a total waste of time to develop these sophisticated scenarios.
2.Do intuition and creativity have any relevance in quantitative planning tools and techniques? Explain. Yes, intuition and creativity may have relevance in determining the factors to be
analyzed or the scenarios to be developed. The planning tools and techniques provide a way for the manager to quantitatively assea situation, but the manager still needs to be creative in setting up the components to be studied.
The Wall Street Journal and other busineperiodicals often carry reports of companies that have not met their sales or profit forecasts. What are some reasons a company might not meet its forecasts? What suggestions could you make for improving the effectiveneof forecasting?
A company could fail to meet its forecasts for a number of reasons. For instance, the economic situation might turn negative, there might be a technological advancement that replaces the company’s product, or a new competitor might come into the marketplace. But this doesn’t mean that the company should eliminate forecasts. Instead, doing forecasts for different scenarios might increase the effectiveneof forecasting. Also, if managers use fairly simple forecasting techniques, this can improve the effectiveneof forecasting. Finally, if the length of time of the forecast is shortened, this can help improve the effectiveness.
In what ways is managing a project different from managing a department or other structured work area? In what ways are they the same?
A project is a one-time-only set of activities that has a definite beginning and ending point in time. Project management is the task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within budget, and according to specification. Project management differs from department/work area management because whereas the project being managed by a project manager is a one-time-one activity with a start and stop point in time, the work area managers manage an ongoing, never-ending set of activities. However, both types of management are involved in completing activities on time, within budget, and according to specifications. In addition, both types of management involve the four functions: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.
“People can use statistics to prove whatever it is they want to prove.” What do you think? What are the implications for managers and how they plan?
Yes, people probably can use statistics to prove whatever it is they want to prove. The implications for managers, however, are that they need to recognize that statistics and any type of quantitative technique are just tools for making decisions. The managers still must interpret and evaluate the information that’s provided through these techniques. 3. 4. 5.
罗宾斯管理学双语教学讲稿
12 Human Resource Management
http://www.oh100.com RODUCTION. The quality of an organization is, to a large degree, merely the summation of the quality of the people it hires and keeps. This chapter addresses the issues associated with human resource management.WHY HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IS IMPORTANT. Various studies have concluded that an organization’s human resources can be
an important strategic tool and can help establish a firm’s sustainable competitive advantage.
A. Whether or not an organization has a human resource department, every
manager is involved with human resource management activities.
B. Managers must see employees as partners, not just costs to be minimized
C. Studies that have looked at the link between HRM policies and practices
and organizational performance have found that certain ones have a positive impact on performance.
1. These high-performance work practices are human resource
policies and practices that lead to high levels of performance at
the individual and organizational levels.
2. Examples of high-performance work practices are shown in
Exhibit 12.1
THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROCESS.
A. The human resource management proceis defined as the eight
activities necessary for staffing the organization and sustaining high employee performance.
B. There are eight steps in the proceas shown in Exhibit 12.2.
C. Important Environmental Considerations.
There are numerous environmental forces that constrain human resource
management activities. The two factors that most directly influence the HRM proceare employee labor unions and governmental laws and regulations.
1. Unionization can affect a company’s human resource
management activities.
a. A labor union is an organization that represents
workers and seeks to protect their interests through
collective bargaining.
b. Good labor-management relations, the formal
interactions between unions and an organization’s
management, are important.
c. Although only about 13.5 percent of the workforce in
the United States is unionized, that percentage is higher
in other countries.
2. Federal laws and regulations have greatly expanded the federal
government’s influence over HRM (See Exhibit 12.3.)
a. Balance of the “should and should nots” for employers
often under the realm of affirmative action.Many
firms have practices that enhance the employment,
1 3.
upgrading, and retention of employees from protected
groups.
4.HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING. Human resource planning is the proceby which managers ensure that they
have the right numbers and kinds of people in the right places and at the right times who are capable of effectively and efficiently performing assigned tasks to assure that the organization reaches its objectives.
A. Current Assessment.
Managers begin with a current assessment of the organization’s human
resources and reviewing their status.
1. This is typically done through a human resource inventory.
2. Another part of the current assessment is the job analysis,
which is an assessment that defines jobs and the behaviors
necessary to perform them.
3. From this information, management can draw up a job
description, which is a written statement of what a jobholder
does, how it is done, and why it is done.
4. Also, management can develop a job specification, which is a
statement of the minimum acceptable qualifications that a
person must posseto perform a given job successfully.
B. Meeting Future Human Resource Needs.
Future assessment involves a determination of future human resource
needs by looking at the organization’s goals and strategies.
1. Developing a future program involves matching estimates of
shortages—both in number and in type—and to highlight areas
in which the organization will be overstaffed.
RECRUITMENT AND DECRUITMENT.
A. Recruitment is the proceof locating, identifying, and attracting
capable applicants.
B. Job candidates can be found using several sources (Exhibit 12.4).
1. Job fairs
2. Web-based recruiting (e-recruiting)
3. Employee referrals (usually produce the best candidates)
C. Decruitment involves techniques for reducing the labor supply within
an organization. Decruitment options include firing, layoffs, attrition,
transfers, reduced workweeks, early retirements, and job sharing. (See
Exhibit 12.5.)
SELECTION.
The selection proceis screening job applicants to ensure that the most appropriate candidates are hired.
A. What is selection? It’s an exercise in prediction.
1. Prediction is important because any selection decision can result
in four possible outcomes. (See Exhibit 12.6.)
2. The major thrust of any selection activity should be to reduce
the probability of making reject errors or accept errors while
increasing the probability of making correct decisions.
25.6.
B.C.D. Validity and Reliability. 1. Validity describes the proven relationship that exists between a selection device and some relevant criterion. 2. Reliability is the ability of a selection device to measure the same thing consistently.Types of Selection Devices. There are numerous and varied selection devices to choose from. Exhibit 12.7 lists the strengths and weaknesses of each of these devices. 1. The application form is used by almost all organizations for job candidates. 2. Written tests can include tests of intelligence, aptitude, ability, and interest. 3. Performance-simulation tests involve having job applicants simulate job activities. Two well-known ones are: a. Work sampling is a selection device in which job applicants are presented with a miniature model of a job and asked to perform a task or set of tasks that are central to that job. b. Assessment centers are places in which job candidates undergo performance simulation tests that evaluate managerial potential. 4. Interviews are very popular as a selection device although there are many concerns about their reliability and validity. Exhibit 12.8 lists some suggestions for making interviews more valid and reliable. Exhibit 12.9 lists examples of questions that interviewers should not ask. a. New approach is using situational interviews where candidates role-play in mock scenarios. 5. Background investigations can be done by verifying application data and/or reference checks.6. Physical examinations are often used for jobs with physical requirements. What Works Best and When?
1. Exhibit 12.10 provides a summary of the validity of these
various selection devices for particular types of jobs.
2. A realistic job preview is a technique that provides job
applicants with both positive and negative information about the
job and the company. Including an RJP can increase job
satisfaction among employees and reduce turnover.
7.ORIENTATION. Orientation is defined as the introduction of a new employee into his or her job
and the organization.
A. Types of Orientation.
1. Work unit orientation familiarizes the employee with the goals
of the work unit, clarifies how his or her job contributes to the
unit’s goals, and includes an introduction to his or her new
coworkers.
http://www.oh100.com anization orientation informs the new employee about the organization’s objectives, history, philosophy, procedures, and rules. The major objectives of orientation include: 1. Reduce initial anxiety. 2. Familiarize new employees with the job, the work unit, and the organization. 3. Facilitate the outsider-insider transition. Formal orientation programs are quite prevalent in many organizations, particularly large ones. Managers have an obligation to new employees to insure that their integration into the organization is as smooth and anxiety-free as possible. EMPLOYEE TRAINING. Employee training is a critical component of the human resource management
program.
A. Skill categories fall into three types.
1. Technical skills, which include basic skills (reading, writing,
math) and job-specific competencies.
2. Interpersonal skills, which involve the ability to interact
effectively with coworkers and bosses.
3. Problem-solving skills, which involve the ability to solve
problems that arise.
B. Exhibit 12.11 describes the major types of training that organizations
provide.
1. On-the-job training is extremely common. It can involve job
rotation, which is on-the-job training that involves lateral
transfers in which employees get to work at different jobs. It can
also involve mentoring and coaching, experiential exercises and
classroom training.
2. Technology-driven training methods (see Exhibit 12.12).
EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT.
A. Managers need to know whether their employees are performing their
jobs efficiently and effectively or whether there is need for
improvement.
B. A performance management system is a proceof establishing
performance standards and appraising employee performance in order to
arrive at objective HR decisions and support those decisions with
documentation.
C. Performance Appraisal Methods (Exhibit 12.13 summarizes the
advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods.)
1. Written essays is an appraisal technique in which an evaluator
writes out a description of an employee’s strengths and
weaknesses, past performance, and potential.
2. Critical incidents is a technique in which the appraiser writes
down anecdotes that describe what the employee did that was
9.
3.4.5.6.7.10.
especially effective or ineffective. The key is that only specific behaviors, not vaguely defined personality traits, are cited. Graphic rating scales is one of the oldest and most popular performance appraisal methods. This method lists a set of performance factors, and the evaluator goes down the list and rates the employee on each factor using an incremental scale. Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) is an appraisal approach that combines major elements from the critical incident and graphic rating scale approaches. The appraiser rates an employee according to items along a scale, but the items are examples of actual behavior on the job rather than general descriptions or traits. Multiperson comparison methods compare one individual’s performance with that of one or more others. Objectives.MBO is also a mechanism for appraising performance. 360-degree feedback is a performance appraisal method that utilizes feedback from supervisors, employees, and coworkersCOMPENSATION AND BENEFITS. How do organizations decide on the compensation levels and benefits that
employees will receive?
A. The purpose of having an effective reward system is to attract and retain
competent and talented individuals who can help the organization
achieve its mission and goals.
B. A compensation system can include base wages and salaries, wage and
salary add-ons, incentive payments, and benefits and services.
C. What factors determine the compensation and benefits packages for
different employees? (See Exhibit 12.14.)
1. One key factor is the kind of job an employee performs.
a. Typically, the higher the skill level, the higher the pay.
b. Many organizations have implemented skill-based pay
systems in which employees are rewarded for the job
skills and competencies that they can demonstrate.
2. Another factor is the kind of businethe organization is in
(private sector versus public sector).
3. Flexibility is becoming a key consideration in the design of an
organization’s compensation system.
11.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT. A career is defined as the sequence of positions held by a person during his or
her lifetime.
A. We need to look first at career development the way it was.
1. Career development programs were typically designed by
organizations to help employees advance their work lives within
a specific organization.
12.
However, widespread internal changes have altered the idea of a traditional organizational career. 3. Now, it’s the individual, not the organization, who is responsible for his or her own career. B. You and Your Career Today.The idea of increased personal responsibility for one’s career has been described as a boundarylecareer in which individuals rather than organizations define career progression, organizational loyalty, important skills, and marketplace value. 1. The challenge for individuals is that there are no norms and few rules to guide them. 2. The optimum career choice is one that offers the best match between what a person wants out of life and his or her interests, abilities, and market opportunities. 3. Exhibit 12.15 provides results of a survey of college graduates regarding what is important to them in their first jobs. CURRENT ISSUES IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. There are several contemporary human resource issues facing managers today.
A. Managing Downsizing is a challenge for management in a tight
economy.
1. Downsizing is the planned elimination of jobs in an
organization.This can be due to the need to cut costs, declining
market share, over aggressive organizational growth.
B. Managing Workforce Diversity.
One current HR issue is managing workforce diversity. As we’ve talked
about previously, the makeup of the workforce is changing and will
impact recruitment, selection, and orientation/training of employees.
C. Sexual Harassment.
Sexual harassment is behavior marked by sexually aggressive remarks,
unwanted touching and sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or
other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. It can occur between
members of the opposite sex or of the same sex.
D. Work-Life Balance.
Family concerns, especially work-life balance, are another issue of
current importance in human resource management.
1. Organizations are beginning to realize that employees can’t just
leave their family needs and problems behind when they walk
into work. They’re responding by developing programs to help
employees deal with the family issues that may arise.
2. Another family issue is that of dual-career couples, in which
both partners have a professional, managerial, or administrative
occupation.2.
1. Are there limits on how far a prospective employer should delve into an
applicant’s personal life by means of interviews or tests? Explain.
2.3. The law defines the limits by requiring information to be job related. If the information meets the legality test, it is probably also legitimate from a moral perspective. Should an employer have the right to choose employees without governmental interference? Support your conclusion. Student responses to this question will vary. In fact, this would be an excellent question to set up as a debate with half of the clasupporting government legislation and regulations and the other half opposing it. Studies show that women’s salaries still lag behind men’s, and even with equal
opportunity laws and regulations, women are paid about 73 percent of what men are paid. How would you design a compensation system that would addrethis issue?
This is a very difficult question. Students will probably come up with different suggestions for addressing the inequities. However, be sure to remind them that there are many factors that influence an organization’s compensation system. In fact, this would be a good time to review these factors.
What drawbacks, if any, do you see in implementing flexible benefits? (Consider this question from the perspective of both the organization and the employee.) This would be a good question to assign half of the clato consider the question from the organization’s viewpoint and make a list of pros and cons, while the other half of the claconsiders the question from the employee’s viewpoint and makes a list of pros and cons.
What are the benefits and drawbacks of realistic job previews? (Consider this question from the perspective of both the organization and the employee.)
Again, this question would be a good debate-type question, with half of the clalooking at RJPs from the organization’s viewpoint and the other half of the clalooking at RJPs from the employee’s viewpoint. Also, students should be encouraged to share incidents when they received an RJP during an interview setting. Students could also be encouraged to share aspects or characteristics of jobs they currently hold that would be good information to provide incoming employees during an RJP. 4. 5.
罗宾斯管理学双语教学讲稿
15 Understanding Groups and Teams
http://www.oh100.com RODUCTION. Work groups are a common arrangement within today’s busineorganizations.
Work is being restructured around groups of all kinds and in all sizes of organizations. Managers need an understanding of group behavior and the concept of teams in order to appreciate what groups can and cannot do within organizations and how groups function.
UNDERSTANDING GROUP BEHAVIOR.
Groups exhibit different behavior—more than just the sum total of each group member’s individual behavior. In this section, we’re going to look at various aspects of group behavior.
A. What Is a Group?
A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent
individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives.
1. Formal groups are work groups established by the organization
and who have designated work assignments and specific tasks.
(See Exhibit 15.1.)
2. Informal groups are natural social formations that appear in the
work environment.
B. Stages of Group Development.
There is strong evidence that groups pathrough five stages as they
develop. (See Exhibit 15.2.)
1. Forming is the first stage in group development during which
people join the group and then define the group’s purpose,
structure, and leadership. Forming is a stage characterized by
much uncertainty. This stage is complete when members begin
to think of themselves as part of a group.
2. Storming is the second stage of group development
characterized by intragroup conflict. When this stage is
complete, members will agree upon the leadership hierarchy and
group direction.
3. Norming is the third stage of group development, characterized
by close relationships and cohesiveness.
4. Performing is the fourth stage in group development when the
group is fully functional.
5. Adjourning is the final stage in group development for
temporary groups. It’s characterized by concern with wrapping
up activities rather than with task performance.
C. Understanding Work Group Behavior.
We need to look at how groups work. The answer to why some groups
are more successful than others is quite complex. There are five factors that can affect this relationship. (See Exhibit 15.3.)
1. External conditions imposed on the group by the larger
organization of which it is a subsystem.
12.
2.3.4.5. Group member resources, which include member abilities and personality characteristics.Group member resources in cross-cultural groups.The relationship between group performance and member resources is made more challenging in global organizations where cross-cultural groups are prevalent. Group Structure.There are seven aspects of the internal structure.Six are covered here and leadership is covered in chapter 17. a. A role is a set of behavior patterns expected of someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Role conflict can occur when an individual is confronted with different role expectations. b.Norms are acceptable standards or expectationsshared by a group’s members. Although each grouphas its own unique set of norms, there are commonclasses of norms that appear in organizations. c. Conformity.Norms focus on effort and performance,dress, and loyalty. Also, because individuals desire acceptance by the groups to which they belong, they are susceptible to conformity pressure.When an individual’s opinion of objective data differs significantly from that of others in the group, h/she feels extensive pressure to align his or her option to conform to others’ opinions.This is known as groupthink. d. Status systems are an important factor in understanding group behavior. Status is a prestige grading, position, or rank within a group. e. Group size can also affect the group’s overall behavior. The effect depends on which outcomes are focused on. An important finding related to group size is social loafing—the tendency for individual to expend leeffort when working collectively than when working individually. . f. Group cohesiveneis the degree to which members are attracted to one another and share the group’s goals. Research has shown that highly cohesive groups are more effective than those that are lecohesive. However, it’s important to look at the degree to which the group’s attitude aligns with the goals. (See Exhibit 15.5.) Group processes include the communication patterns used by
members to exchange information, group decision processes, leader behavior, power dynamics, conflict interactions, and other actions.
a. Group Decision Making. (See Exhibit 15-6) Groups
make many organizational decisions.Advantages:
1. Generate more complete information and
knowledge
2
b.c.2. Generate more diverse alternatives 3. Increase acceptance of a solution 4. Increase legitimacy.Group Decision Making disadvantages: 1. Time consuming 2. Minority domination 3.Pressures to conform 4. Ambiguous http://www.oh100.com nflict management is another group concept that we need to understand. Conflict is perceivedincompatible differences that result in interference or opposition.1. 2.3.
Traditional view of conflict argues that conflict must be avoided. The human relations view of conflict is the view that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group. The interactionist view of conflict is the view that some conflict is necessary for a group to perform effectively. Some conflicts are functional conflicts, those
conflicts that support a group’s goals. Others are
dysfunctional conflicts, which are conflicts that
prevent a group from achieving its goals.
Exhibit 15.8 illustrates the challenge facing
managers regarding conflict and group
performance.
Three types of conflict have been identified:
1. Task conflict relates to the content and goals of
the work.
2. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal
relationships and is always dysfunctional.
3. Proceconflict refers to how the work gets
done.
e. Managers can use different conflict resolution
approaches. (See Exhibit 15.9.)
6. Group Tasks.The complexity and interdependence of tasks
influence the group’s effectiveness.
3.TURNING GROUPS INTO EFFECTIVE TEAMS. Work teams are formal groups made up of interdependent individuals,
responsible for attaining goals. Organizations are increasingly designing work around teams rather than individuals.
A. Most of us are probably familiar with the concept of a team. However,
we may not be as familiar with work teams. All work teams are groups,
but only formal groups can be work teams.d.
3
B.4.There are different types of teams. Four characteristics can be used to distinguish different types of teams.1. Teams can vary in their purpose or goal. 2. The duration of a team tends to be either permanent or temporary. 3. Team membership can be either functional or cross-functional. 4. Finally, teams can either be supervised or self-managed. 5. Given these four characteristics, some of the most popular types of teams used today include the following: a. A functional team is a type of work team that is composed of a manager and his or her subordinates from a particular functional area. b. A self-directed or self-managed team is one that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work proceor segment that delivers a product or service to an external or internal customer. c. A virtual team is one that uses computer technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. d. Finally, a cross-functional team is one in which individuals who are experts in various specialties (or functions) work together on various organizational tasks.CREATING EFFECTIVE TEAMS. Teams aren’t automatically going to magically perform at high levels. We need
to look more closely at how managers can develop and manage effective teams.
A. There are eight characteristics associated with effective teams. (See
Exhibit 15.10.)
1. Clear goals
2. Relevant skills
3. Mutual trust
4. Unified commitment
5. Good communication
6. Negotiating skills
7. Appropriate leadership
8. Internal and external support
Think of a group to which you belong (or have belonged). Trace its development through the stages of group development shown in Exhibit 15.2. How closely did its development parallel the group development model? How might the group development model been used to improve the group’s effectiveness?
Student responses to this will vary. However, encourage your students to be specific in terms of citing examples of each of the stages.
How do you think scientific management theorists would react to the increased reliance on teams in organizations? How would the behavioral science theorists react?
Scientific management theorists would react negatively to the use of teams in organizations. Scientific management focuses on the “one best way” for an
4 1. 2.
individual to do his or her job, and teams would not be conducive to finding this approach. Behavioral scientists, on the other hand, probably would be favorable to the idea of teams in organizations. Because teams help focus more challenge and responsibility on individuals, the behavioralists would be in favor of this approach.
3.How do you explain the popularity of work teams in the United States when its culture places such high value on individualism and individual effort? Work teams appear to be rapidly increasing in popularity because of the impact they have on higher productivity, improved quality, and increased employee motivation and satisfaction.
Why might a manager want to stimulate conflict in a group or team? How could conflict be stimulated?
A manager might want to stimulate conflict in a group or team in order to help that group or team better reach its goals. Managers want to stimulate conflict to gain the full benefits of its functional properties without letting it become a disruptive force. Conflict can be simulated by bringing in outsiders to the group, restructuring the group, appointing a devil’s advocate, changing the group’s culture, and using communication.
Do you think that everyone should be expected to be a team player, given the trends we’re seeing in the use of teams? Discuss. 4. 5.
Students are likely to have different feelings about this. Although the use
of work teams in organizations is increasing, some individuals do not work (perform) best in a team setting. So, should managers expect everyone to be a team player? Probably not. If the manager’s job is to coordinate and integrate work activities, then he or she should take into consideration that some individuals may not perform well in a team setting.
5
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